Microwave Motion Detector

Microwave Motion Detector CHAPTER NO: 1 MICROWAVE MOTION DETECTOR (MMD) 1.1 INTRODUCTION: â€Å"The Microwave Motion Detector (MMD) is a true microwave Doppler transmitter and receiver, solves difficult detection problems easily with the microwave motion detector, senses any moving body be it a person, animal, car, bicycle or extra-terrestrial.† 1.2 WHY MICROWAVE MOTION DETECTOR: Understanding basic home security best practices could mean the difference between keeping your home safe and becoming the victim of a break-in. Start protecting your home better by exploring our Home Security Basics section which provides a good foundation of knowledge on everything from security cameras to outdoor lighting options that help prevent break-ins before they happen. I the light of above detail we have a requirement of autonomous microwave motion detector to prevent our assets from terrorism and any other type damage or robbery. 1.3 PROJECT GOAL: The major goal of this project is to design an autonomous Motion Detection setup, that will be able to sense the motion of any moving object (person, car bicycle or extra-terrestrial) in the designated area or designated range. In our project we have used different type of small size electronics (Diodes, Transistors, FETs, Resistor, Capacitors and Operational Amplifiers) to complete the setup and to make a smart and precise design of MMD. 1.4 PRINCIPLE OF MICROWAVE MOTION DETECTOR: The system emits microwave energy that completely fills its area of detection, much like ultrasonic sensors. A Gunn diode emits energy in the x-range, similar in effect to Doppler frequency shifts. Any disturbance caused by movement within the field of detection may activate the alarm system/Buzzer. Despite fears held by many, these sensors do not adversely affect humans and pacemakers. 1.5 SPECIFICTION: Ø True microwave Doppler shift operation Ø Unaffected by heat, light, sound, humidity or temperature Ø A real microwave transmitter/receiver runs at 1 GHz Ø Runs on 9 to 15 volts DC ideal for car burglar alarms 1.6 REQUIREMENTS: Ø DC Voltage, (+9V to +15V). Ø Oscilloscope DC 2 to 200MHz to monitor the transmitted signal of oscillator and observe waveform of different stages of Microwave Motion Detector. Ø BNC plug to BNC plug cable 75 Ohms, 1 Meter 1.7 APPLICATIONS OF MMD: The chief applications for MMD have been given bellow. Ø Detection of unauthorized entry in our home, Offices and other restricted buildings. Ø Detection of moving object which triggers a Camera to record subsequent events or to operate a Buzzer/Alarm, LED, Laser Diode etc. Ø This relatively inexpensive and the MMD can easily be used in a variety of science projects, robots and other useful devices. 1.8 BREIF HISTORY OF MOTION DETECTION: Motion can be detected by measuring change in speed or vector of an objector objects in field of view. This can be achieved either by mechanical devices that physically, interact with the field or by electronic devices that quantify and measures changes in the given environment. 1.9 PREVIOUS METHODS OF MOTION DETECTION: Different methods of motion detection were used in past. These are given bellow. Some methods have been obsolete. Some methods are still in used. 1.9.1 MECHANICAL DEVICES: A tripwire is a simple form of motion detector. When an object steps into the tripwire s sensory field (i.e, trips the wire), then a simple sound device might alert to the user. 1.9.2 ELECTRONIC DEVICES: The principal methods by which motion can be electronically identified are optical detection an acoustical detection. Infrared light or laser technologies may be used for optical detection. Microwaves are one of the best tools for motion detection. CHAPTER NO: 2 DOPPLER THEORY AND RADIATION PATTERN 2.1 DOPPLER THEORY: The operation of the MMD is based on a physical theory known as the Doppler Effect. In its simplest form the Doppler theory states that as sound, light or even radio waves are reflected back by a moving object, the frequency of these waves will be different from the frequency when the object is stationary. As the object moves away the frequency will decrease and if the object moves toward you, the frequency will increase. This effect is demonstrated very visibly (or should we say audibly) by a train whistle passing you. This change in frequency is due to the waves being either stretched or compressed as they leave the moving object. Compressing the waves closer will have the effect of increasing the perceived frequency while stretching the waves will cause the frequency to appear lower. This is obviously not the place for an in depth discussion of Doppler theory Just be aware that it is the basis for the operation of the MMD. In fact, with an oscilloscope you can actually see this fr equency change at U1 pin 10. Another phenomenon associated with waves is called the Doppler Effect. Imagine standing near a train track, and a train approaches you with its whistle blowing. The pitch of sound waves is associated with the frequency of the wave: the higher the pitch, the higher the frequency. Thus, as the train approaches the frequency of the sound wave you hear is higher, and as it recedes the frequency is lower. This can be pictured by the following diagram. In this : 2.1 the circles represent, as viewed from above, the crests of adjacent waves. Thus, if you are standing to the right, with the wave source moving towards you, more waves reach you per second, which means that the frequency you hear is higher. Conversely, if you stand to the left, with the wave source moving away from you, fewer waves reach you per second and the frequency you hear is lower. 2.2 TYPICAL RADIATION PATTERN. The microwave motion detector circuit radiates the microwave frequency from an omni directional antenna so the radiation pattern for the electromagnetic waves is given as under. 2.3 RADIATION SAFETY Microwave radiation from the module is well below established safety standards for general public environment, like ANSI C95.1-1991 of USA and NRPB-G11 of United Kingdom. 2.4 HANDLING: The module is an electrostatic sensitive device (ESD). Precautions shall be observed for handling and assembly. Use the circuit module in an electromagnetic interference free environment to avoid errors in detection. 2.5 FUNCTIONAL IMPROVEMENT: The module can be improved to calculate the speed of the moving object. This can also be used to find the direction of the moving object; some additional circuitry is required for these functions. CHAPTER NO: 3 HARDWARE DESIGN OF MICROWAVE MOTION DETECTOR In this section it has been tried to cover hardware related topics of MMD. That is given below separately. 3.1 MMD BLOCK DIAGRAM: The block diagram of the MMD has been shown in the following The detail of block diagram has been shown in the following section. 3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM BRIEF DESCRIPTION: The MMD consists of eight (08) major blocks. Ø Power supply unit Ø Oscillator Ø Transceiver Ø Mixer Ø Buffer amplifier Ø Band pass amplifier Ø Output Drive Amplifier Ø Signal indicator/ Interfacing circuitry 3.2.1 Power Supply Unit: This unit provides required supply voltages for several circuit stages. Source required for the operation of this circuit is from +9v to +15v dc. It is responsible of biasing for all stages of the system. We can use dc battery or built in power supply for this system. This property of the system made it portable device for motion detection. 3.2.2 Oscillator: This section of the circuit produces the frequency approximately 1Ghz.Crystal oscillator is used to generate the required frequency. choice of this oscillator is due to its compact size , low cast and availability of the this component in the market. 3.2.3 Transceiver: The microwave RF energy that is developed by the oscillator is radiated in an omni-directional pattern from the antenna. Then the redirected waves are also received by the same antenna. 3.2.4 Mixer: Received frequency is mixed with the transmitted frequency. 3.2.5 Buffer Amplifier: Frequency generated by the mixer is amplified and buffered in this section of the circuit. 3.2.6 Band Pass Amplifier: Frequency filtered by the mixer is amplified and buffered in this section of the circuit. The band of frequencies passed from the stage is between 10Hz to 40Hz. 3.2.7 Output Drive Amplifier: This amplifier drives the output stage. 3.2.8 Signal Indicator/Interfacing circuits: The detected motion is indicated in the form of an LED glow or it can be interfaced with an interfacing signal that could be some alarm system, camera etc. 3.3 MMD CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: The circuit diagram has been generated in Protell / P-CAD. 3.4 PARTS LISTS: 3.4.1 CAPACITORS LIST: S.# DESCRIPTION DESIGNATOR QTY 1 0.01 uF Disk capacitor (marked .01 or 103 or 10nf) C3, C8, C15, C18 04 2 0.1 uF disk capacitor (marked .1 or 104) C11, C12, C20 03 3 2.0 pF. or 2.2 pf. disk capacitor C6, C7 02 4 22 pF. disk capacitor C5 01 5 1.0 uF electrolytic capacitor C16, C17 02 6 10.0 uF electrolytic capacitor C1, C2, C9, C10, C13, C14 06 7 220 uF electrolytic capacitor C4 01 8 1000 uF electrolytic capacitor C19 01 3.4.2 RESISTORS LIST: S.# DESCRIPTION DESIGNATOR QTY 1 220 Ohm (red-red brown) R2 01 2 470 Ohm (yellow-violet-brown) R1, R15 02 3 1K Ohm (brown-black-red) R6, R7, R11, R20 04 4 4.7K Ohm (yellow-violet-red) R12 01 5 10K Ohm (brown-black-orange) R4, R14, R16, R19, R21 05 6 47K Ohm (yellow-violet-orange) R3 01 7 100K Ohm (brown-black-yellow) R5, R17, R18 03 8 470K Ohm (yellow-violet-yellow) R13 01 9 1 Mega Ohm (brown-black-green) R9, R10 02 10 10K potentiometer R8 01 3.4.3 SEMICONDUCTORS LIST: S.# DESCRIPTION DESIGNATOR QTY 1 Diode 1SS99 (clear glass body with black and blue bands) D1 01 2 Diode 1N4148 (glass body with single black band) D2 01 3 LED D3 01 4 2N3904 NPN transistor Q1, Q2 02 5 2SC2498 or 2570 NPN UHF transistor Q3 01 6 BS170 FET transistor Q8 01 7 LM-324 op-amp U1 01 3.4.4 HARDWARE AND MISCELLANEOUS LIST: S.# DESCRIPTION DESIGNATOR QTY 1 MMD Printed Circuit Board 01 2 Connector 6 Pin J-1 01 3 Connector 2 Pin J-2 01 3.5 MMD PARTS LAYOUT COMPOMENT STUFFING GUIDE DIAGRAM: 3.6 CONSTRUCTION OF THE MMD CIRCUIT: The following steps have been taken for the construction of the MMD main circuit in the light of the PCB layout given in the previous : 3.3 1. 2. 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6.1 Check off each step as understood and completed. Examine the parts layout diagram for parts location on the PC board. In all steps, â€Å"install† means to carefully insert the part into the correct hole, solder the leads to the PC board and trim away the excess lead wire. 3.6.2 Use good soldering techniques let your soldering iron tip heat each connection wire enough so that the wire itself and PC board circuit trace BOTH become hot enough to melt the applied solder. The solder should flow smoothly around the lead wire and PC board trace. 3.6.3 Orient the circuit board as shown in parts layout diagram. 3.6.4 Install the LED, with the longer lead towards potentiometer R8. Leave the leads about 3/4† long if you are using the MMD case. 3.6.5 Install sensitivity control R8, 10K potentiometer. R8 acts as a â€Å"volume† control, adjusting the level of Doppler shift signal being applied to amplifier and switching portions of the MMD. 3.6.6 Install J1, 6 pin connector. 3.6.7 Install C1, 10uF electrolytic capacitor. Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and must be installed correctly. Usually PC layouts will show where the + lead should go while the capacitor itself will usually indicate the lead. In any case, be sure you observe correct polarity. 3.6.8 Install Q2, 2N3904. Orient the flat side of the transistors as shown on parts layout diagram. Q2 has an interesting function, being connected as a zener diode! The reversed biased base-emitter junction on a silicon transistor behaves as a low power zener diode with a breakdown voltage in the 6 to 8 volt range. 3.6.9 Install Q1, 2N3904 Orient the flat side as shown. Q1 acts as a power supply filter and regulator for the op-amp IC chip, U1. 3.6.10 Install R1, 470 Ohm (yellow-violet-brown). 3.6.11 Install Q8, BS170 and orient the flat side as shown.Q8 is a power transistor. 3.6.12 MOSFET that controls the external load you connect to your MD3. 3.6.13 MOSFET is used since, as the load is turned on and off, a regular bipolar transistor will cause the MD3 to â€Å"see† itself. This is due to the diode switching action in a bipolar transistors base-emitter junction. 10. Install C20, .1uF capacitor (marked .1 or 104). 2.3 Power supply (General Purpose) Circuit Operation. In the above : 3.4 a preview of the main PCB have been shown. In this preview the portable battery has also been shown. 3.7 POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT: The supply is provided by using a transformer with output 20v+20V, 2A leading to a distributed power supply circuit (for general purpose supply) that provides outputs +15V,-15v, +12V, +9V connected to 50Hz, 220 VAC supply mains. The power supply circuit consists of bridge rectifier that provides +20v and -20v with 2A ratings. 3.7.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT: The block diagram of the power supply unit has been shown in the following : 3.7.2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT: In the following a circuit diagram of general purpose power supply has been shown in the : 3.6. The circuit diagram has been designed in the Protel Software. 3.7.3 POWER SUPPLY ASSEMBLED PCB: The preview of the assembled power supply unit has been shown in the : 3.7. 3.8 ALTERNATE PORTABLE POWER SUPPLY: An alternate supply can be used instead of a self made supply we can use a +9 Volt Battery to power up the circuit. In this circuit battery is used for simplicity. In the remote area or the area where AC power source is not available we are required to used this portable battery for a short period of time because the life of this battery is to short for proper working of MMD for a long period. CHAPTER NO: 4 ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS AND USER MANUAL 4 4.1 ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MMD: After the stuFfing of PCB test the Microwave motion detector PCB on your workbench for the verification of the design and reliability of components used in the stuFfing of PCB. If the testing is assured to be perfect now it is the time to assemble the PCB of microwave motion detector in a casing. There are three parts of the Assembly of the microwave motion detector. Ø Composites Box Ø Power Supply PCB Ø Microwave Motion Detector PCB Ø Power ON/OFF switch Ø Motion indicator LED (Green LED) This box is made of fiber (Composites material). 4.2.1 POWER SUPPLY PCB: In the following : 4.2 assembled Power supply unit has been shown. 4.2.2 MOTION DETECTOR PCB: In the following : 4.2 assembled Main MMD PCB has been shown. Assemble the box in the following steps. Ø Mount the power supply PCB on the bottom of the box Ø Mount the Microwave Motion Detector PCB in the box Ø Mount the power switch on the box Ø Mount the indicator LED on the box at the last. Ø Final assembly is shown inn the . In the following : 4.3 assembled MMD system has been shown. The MMD has been shown in the working conditions in a room, means it is sensing the movement of a moving body and giving its response of motion sensing by glowing up the LED. 4.3 INSTRUCTION MANUAL: A switch is placed in the path of DC power so that the power can be saved in the time when the device is not in use. Turn off the switch after using the device and turn it on before using this device. The green light will glow automatically for approximately 5 seconds soon after turning on the device. This indication is not for a moving object but this light glows as a function of turning on the device. The Microwave motion detector is operated in the case where a moving object is needed to sense. In our design the circuit antenna is arranged in the position that it can sense a motion within the range of 2 meters approximately. When an object is moved within this range the motion is sensed by the design and a green light blinks on the panel of the box. This is an indication for the moving object. It can sense another motion approximately 10 seconds after the first motion is sensed. For better sensitivity this device may be used in the electromagnetic interference free environment so that the waves cannot interfere in the produced frequency of the device. Also it must be operated in the vibration free environment so that its antenna must be in static condition if it is in the vibration itself it will sense the motion when nothing is in moving condition, it is due the motion of its own antenna that the frequency is transmitted and received itself by the moving antenna and the green li ght on the panel keeps on glowing that is an operator fault and can be rectified by placing the device on a balanced plane surface. A special care for the Microwave Motion detector is that operate the circuit in the box and never use the PCB alone because this PCB needs special care for the electrostatic charge. An external supply port may be given in the box so that a regulated DC power can also be applied externally to the device. For external power be careful about the polarity of the given DC power. CHAPTER NO: 5 OPERATION OF MICROWAVE MOTION DETECTOR 5.1 WORKING PRINCPAL OF MICROWAVE MOVEMENT DETECTOR: Microwave generating and receiving module generates and transmits a microwave signal which is reflected by a moving target and received back by the module. The module comprises a disc-form Shottky diode or Gunn diode acting as both oscillator and mixer and forming part of micro strip circuitry and signal processing circuitry which processes the reflected signal to extract relevant target information. The signal processing circuitry can be physically displaced from the module and connected to it by a coaxial line. By operating the diode in the diplex mode the requisite target information can be provided for with a compact construction. A microwave movement detector comprising a microwave generating and receiving module for use in generating and transmitting a microwave signal to be intercepted and reflected by a moving target and for receiving the reflected microwave signal from said target, wherein the microwave generating and receiving module comprises micro strip circuitry in combination with a diode acting as both an oscillator and a mixer, said detector further comprising modulating means for modulating the generated microwave signal so that quantitive information as to target range, velocity and direction can be obtained, whereby the detector operates in accordance with a diplex configuration, wherein said detector includes a transmitter for transmitting the modulated generated microwave signal, and wherein the modulating means repetitively switches the transmitter of the microwave generating and receiving module between two frequencies to provide a signal having two spectral lines separated by gaps between t he frequencies. This invention relates to a microwave movement detector particularly although not exclusively for use as an intruder alarm. An object of the present invention is to provide a microwave movement detector which is sensitive and reliable in operation yet which can be constructed in a simple and inexpensive manner with a conveniently small and compact format. 5.2 GENERAL STUDY RELATED TO THE MMD: According to one aspect of the invention therefore a microwave movement detector comprises a microwave generating and receiving module for use in generating a transmitted microwave signal to be intercepted by a moving target and for receiving a reflected microwave signal from such target, in which the module comprises microstrip circuitry in combination with a Shottky diode arranged to act both as an oscillator and also as a mixer. With this arrangement, great operational sensitivity and reliability can be achieved and yet the module can be constructed in a simple and inexpensive manner as a conveniently small and compact device. In one embodiment the module may be in the form of a thin disc having a thickness of, say 0.5 cm, and a diameter which may be as small as about 3 cm. The said module may be connected to signal processing circuitry responsive to the relationship between the transmitted and reflected signals, for example so as to produce an output whenever target movement is detected, or only so as to produce an output when one or more parameters of such movement (range, velocity, direction) are of a predetermined nature or changes in a predetermined manner. Most conveniently, said signal processing circuitry may be provided in the form of a signal processing module separate from the aforesaid generating and receiving module, and, in accordance with one embodiment, the two modules may be up to 100 m away from each other and interconnected by a simple coaxial or twin cable. The signal processing module may be powered by mains supply, or a 12 V d.c. battery or otherwise as appropriate, and such module may also act to supply operating power to the generating and receiving module. The output produced by the signal processing module may be utilized for alarm purposes to actuate a separate remote warning bell or siren or buzzer or the like. Alternatively, if desired, the movement detector of the invention may incorporate an alarm module connected to the said signal processing module and arranged to produce modulated warning tone when actuated by said output. Such alarm module may incorporate a stand-by rechargeable battery. As mentioned above, the detector of the invention may operate in the manner of a simple Doppler detector sensitive only to movement, but preferably the transmitted microwave signal is modulated so that quantitative information as to range, velocity and direction can be obtained, the detector thereby operating in accordance with a diplex configuration. With such diplex configuration, advantageously the requisite information can be obtained with a particularly simple construction. In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, the diplex, configuration is such that the transmitter is repetitively switched between two frequencies say 3 MHZ apart at X-band to give two discrete spectral lines separated by 3 MHZ . The magnitude of such frequency difference may be decreased with increase in the maximum range to be measured (beyond say 25 m). The reflected signal from a moving target results, after mixing in the Shottky diode, in a reflected signal which is a composite of two Doppler signals sampled sequentially at the modulation rate (say 10 kH Z ). The relative phase of these Doppler signals provides range and velocity sense information, whilst the Doppler beat frequency is proportional to the target velocity relative to the detector. The switching of the transmitter between the two frequencies may be achieved by square-wave modulation of the Shottky diode bias current. With such square-wave modulation particularly simple video circuitry may be used, however sinusoidal modulation may alternatively be used and this allows improved range resolution without reducing the maximum unambiguous range. With regard to the Shottky diode, this may be a conventional barrier injection transit time device formed from a p + np + construction. Alternatively, a specially fabricated ion-implanted device or an `electron` type Shottky diode may be utilized. While the utilization of a Shottky diode constitutes an essential feature of the first aspect of the present invention, it has been found that the utilization of a Gunn diode (i.e. a transfer electron diode) may be advantageous in the context of the present invention in the case where microstrip circuitry of diplex configuration (as described above) is also utilized. Thus, and in accordance with a second aspect of the present invention there is provided a microwave movement detector comprising a microwave generating and receiving module for use in generating a transmitted microwave signal to be intercepted by a moving target and for receiving a reflected microwave signal from such target, in which the said module comprises microstrip circuitry in combination with a Gunn diode arranged to act both as an oscillator and as a mixer, said circuitry being of diplex configuration. Whilst it is anticipated that the present invention will find particular application in the context of an intruder alarm such as a burglar alarm, it is to be understood that the invention is not intended to be restricted to this field of application and the detector of the invention may be utilized for detecting movement of persons or vehicles or any other suitable targets in any suitable environment for any suitable purpose. When utilized as an intruder alarm the said generating and receiving module, due to its possible small size, can be easily and conveniently concealed. Also multiple such modules may be utilized together to enable a large area to be protected. By virtue of the range gate facility, false alarms can be minimized. In the case where the invention is applied to the monitoring of vehicles, a standard Doppler format may be used. Selective monitoring can be achieved by virtue of the direction sense of the detector, and the range gate facility is useful in distinguishing vehicles in a cluttered environment. In the case where the invention is applied to the counting of persons entering or leaving an enclosure, due to the direction sense of the detector it is possible to distinguish between persons entering and leaving. Due to the use of the Shottky diode in diplex mode in microstrip circuitry, and having regard to the fact that the diode acts both as oscillator and mixer, a particularly simple, inexpensive and compact construction results. It is of course to be understood that the invention is not intended to be restricted to the details of the above embodiment which are described by way of example only. 5.3 THE MMD HOW OUR DESIGN WORKS: 3.2.1 All the RF magic is accomplished with Q3 and D1. Q3 is a free running microwave oscillator operating at a frequency of approximately 1.0 GHz. The frequency is determined by the length of the etched strip line and the lead lengths (inductance) of the associated oscillator components. 3.2.2 The microwave RF energy that is developed by the oscillator is radiated in an omni-directional pattern from the antenna. This radiated energy will fill the surrounding area with radio waves. These waves will be reflected back toward the antenna. 3.2.3 Heres where the Doppler Effect comes in. If within that area there is an object that is moving, the waves that are reflected will either be higher in frequency if the object is moving closer or lower if moving away. The MD3 doesnt really care which direction; it is only looking for a frequency difference. 3.2.4 The radiated signal and the redirected signal are mixed at diode D1. The difference in the two frequencies provides the input to U1: C pin 10. This frequency (the difference) is in the range of 10 Hz to 40 Hz. U1: C is the amplifier that feeds the sensitivity potentiometer R8. 3.2.5 Transistors Q1 and Q2 function as a very precise voltage regulator providing the proper bias to the amplifiers. 3.2.6 U1: D functions as a band pass filter and amplifier. Buffer amplifier U1: A provides the drive to output transistor Q4. CHAPTER: 6 INTERFACING TECHNIQUES If we want to extend this project at higher level we are required to interface the MMD circuit output with the extended circuitry with the help of following circuit diagrams. (THESE TECHENQUES HAS NOT BEEN USED IN OUR PROJECT) 6.1 INTERFACING CIRCUITS: The MD-3 output transistor provides a pulse when motion is sensed. Here a probably asked question is, â€Å"How do I make it do something?† We can interface this circuit with many other circuits; a few examples are given below. 6.1.1 Interfacing with the relay can drive another circuit; it may be a light, a camera, an alarm system etc. 6.1.2 The microwave motion detector circuit can be interfaced with a transistor (PNP or NPN).This transistor act as a relay it can also drive some other circuits; it could be a light or any security system or an automatic door opening system. 7.1 CONCLUSION

Why the Death Penalty Should Be Terminated Essay -- The Case Against C

     Ã‚  Ã‚   "Death is a unique punishment in the United States. In a society that so strongly affirms the sanctity of life, not surprisingly the common view is that death is the ultimate sanction... There has been no national debate about punishment in general or by imprisonment, comparable to the debate about the punishment of death" (Brennan).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Indeed, the issue of capital punishment is one that has been widely debated and for which many persuasive arguments of distinctly opposing viewpoints are available. The issue at hand is and always has been about whether or not we, as a society, should presume to enforce a penalty that by definition irrevocably extinguishes the existence of another autonomous human being. Is it a responsible and mature decision to implement a penalty of such resounding finality merely because the convicted offender has been found to be guilty "beyond a reasonable doubt?" It has long been argued that an appropriate term of imprisonment should be the maximum available penalty for a violent offense. This argument has been supported by the fact that our legal system, though highly evolved and altogether expedient, is far from infallible, and in recognition of this the penalties imposed under it should be both reversible and humane. The imposition of the penalty of death should no longer b e exercised in the United States of America. A socially mature and morally established country should refrain from taking the lives of any of its citizens.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The death penalty is indefensible on three distinct and specific grounds: pragmatic, legal, and moral. The penalty of death is not economically efficient, and is indeed a drain upon the financial resources of our country. Also, it can be proven that the death ... ...alty-share-lower.html Brennan, William. "Concurring Opinion: Furman v. Georgia." No. 69-5003 Supreme Court Of The United States 29 June 1972. Web. 20 May 2015. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/408/238 Linehan, Elizabeth A. "Executing the Innocent." Web. 17 May 2015. https://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Huma/HumaLine.htm Marshall, Thurgood. "Concurring Opinion: Furman v. Georgia." No. 69-5003 Supreme Court Of The United States 29 June 1972 Web. 20 May 2015. https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/408/238 Prejean, Helen. Dead Man Walking. New York: Vintage, 1994. Scheck, Barry, Peter Neufeld, and Jim Dwyer. Actual Innocence. New York: Doubleday, 2000. Sherrill, Robert. "Death Trip; The American Way Of Execution." Nation 8 Jan. 2000. Web. 26 May 2015. http://www.thenation.com/article/death-trip-american-way-execution#

Law Case Study Wholesome Vegetables Ltd

INTRODUCTION A contract has been defined as a legally binding agreement or, in the words of Sir Frederick Pollock: ‘A promise or set of promises which the law will enforce’. However, not all promises or agreements give rise to contracts. According to the case study, Andrew, who works as a salesman at Wholesome Vegetables Ltd, offering to sell Ben 100 bags of potatoes at ? 10 per bag. At first Ben accepted Andrew’s offer but when he heard the news about a slump in the price of potatoes which has fallen to ? 7 per bag, he refuses to accept delivery of Andrew’s pricey potatoes.Therefore there are some issues discussed based on this situation. The discussion includes the requirements that must be met for a contract to exist between Andrew and Ben, the legal effect of Andrew’s fax and Ben’s letter and the explanation of Ben’s text message. QUESTION 1 A contract has many definitions, but one of the simplest definitions for a contract is a â⠂¬Å"promise enforceable by law† (Michael. H, 2010). The promise may be to do something or to refrain from doing something. The making of a contract requires the mutual assent (agreement) of two or more person, one of them normally making an offer and the other accepting it.If one of the parties (persons) fails to keep his or her promise, the other is entitled to legal recourse against that person. There are seven requirements necessary for a contract to be valid (Riches. S,2009): 1. Agreement The first requisite of any contract is an agreement. At least two parties are required; one of them, the offeror, makes an offer which the other, the offeree, accepts. In this case, Andrew is the offeror and the offeree is Ben. 2. 1 Offer An offer is an expression of willingness to contract made with an intention that it shall become binding on the offeror as soon as it is accepted by the offeree.A genuine offer is different from what is known as an â€Å"invitation to treat†, i. e . where a party is merely inviting offers, which he is then free to accept or reject. The following are examples of invitation to treat: auction, display of goods, advertisements, mere statements of price and tenders. An offer can be terminated by acceptance, rejection, revocation, counter offer, lapse of time, failure of a condition and death. 2. 2 Acceptance Once the presence of a valid offer has been established, the next stage in the information of an agreement is to find an acceptance of that offer. The acceptance must be made while the offer is still open.It must be absolute and unqualified. 2. Consideration The mere fact of agreement alone does not make a contract. Both parties to the contract must provide consideration if they wish to sue on the contract. This means that each side must promise to give or do something for the other. 3. 3 Executory consideration Consideration is called â€Å"executory† where there is an exchange of promises to perform acts in the future , eg a bilateral contract for the supply of goods whereby A promises to deliver goods to B at a future date and B promises to pay on delivery. If A does not deliver them, this is a breach of contract and B can sue.If A delivers the goods his consideration then becomes executed. 3. 4 Executed consideration If one party makes a promise in exchange for an act by the other party, when that act is completed, it is executed consideration, eg in a unilateral contract where A offers ? 50 reward for the return of her lost handbag, if B finds the bag and returns it, B's consideration is executed. There are some rules governed in consideration. Consideration must not be in the past. If one party voluntarily performs an act, and the other party then makes a promise, the consideration for the promise is said to be in the past.Past consideration is regarded as no consideration at all. Consideration must move from the promise. If A (the promisor) makes a promise to B (the promise), the promise wil l only be enforceable (unless made in the form of a deed) if B can show that he has provided consideration in return for A’ promise. Consideration must not be illegal. The courts will not entertain an action where the consideration is contrary to a rule of law or is immoral. Consideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate. It must be possible to attach some value to the consideration but there is no requirement for the bargain to be strictly commercial. . Intention The parties must intend the agreement to be legally binding. The nearest the courts can get to discover this intention is to apply an objective test and judge the situation by what was said and done. The law divides agreements into two groups, social ; domestic agreements and business agreements. 4. Form Some contracts are indeed in writing but the majority are created much more informally either orally or implied from conduct. Generally, the law does not require complex formalities to be observed to form a contract. Some types of contracts which are exceptions to this rule.They are contracts which must be in the form of a deed, contracts which must be in writing and contracts and contracts which must be evidenced in writing. 5. Capacity Capacity is also one of the requirements for a contract to be valid. The parties must be legally capable of entering into a contract. There are, however, some groups of people who are in need of the law’s protection either because of their age or inability to appreciate their own actions. The groups which are covered bu special rules are those under the age of 18 (minors), mental patients and drunks. . Genuineness of consent The most basic requirement of a contract is the presence of an agreement. It must have been entered into voluntarily and involved ‘a genuine meeting of minds’. The agreement may be invalidated by a number of factors which are mistake, misrepresentation, duress and undue influence. 7. Legality The principle of freedom of contract is subject to a basic rule that the courts will not uphold an agreement which is illegal or contrary to public policy. Where the contract involves some kind of moral wrongdoing, it will be illegal.If, however, the conduct is neither immoral nor blameworthy, but simply undesirable, the contract will be void. A court may object to an agreement either because of a rule of common law or because it is contrary to statute. In a nut shell, all the requirements stated above must be met for a contract to exist between Andrew and Ben. Question 2 In the case study given, Andrew’s letter on the 21st February is considered as an offer in the law of contract. An offer is an expression of willingness to contract made with the intention that it shall become binding on the offeror as soon as it is accepted by the offeree.It is clearly stated that its an offer when Andrew wrote a letter to Ben, owner of the retail shop offering to sell him 100 bags of potatoes at 10 per ba g. This is also known as a bilateral contract in the law of contract. An example to exemplify this case (Carlil v Carbolic Smoke Ball). Ben’s reply on the 23rd February is acceptance. He replied accepting Andrew’s offer but adding that if he did not hear from Andrew, he would assume that the price included delivery to his (Ben’s) shop. On the 24th February, the acceptance to be considered as an counter-offer introducing the new requirements.If in his reply to an offer, the offeree introduces a new term or varies the terms of the offer, then that reply cannot amount to an acceptance. Instead, the reply is treated as a â€Å"counter offer†, which the original offeror is free to accept or reject. A counter-offer also amounts to a rejection of the original offer which cannot then be subsequently accepted. This can be seen in the case of ( Hyde v Wrench). Based on the case given, on the 24th February, before Ben’s letter arrived. Andrew heard a rumour t hat the price of potatoes was about to slump dramatically. Andrew immediately sent a fax to Ben, stating that the price includes delivery.This is merely counter offering the previous offer. Therefore, when Ben also heard the news about the slump in the price of potatoes where upon he sent Andrew a text message stating ‘decline your offer of pots’ clearly shows that he varies the terms of the offer and it cannot amount to an acceptance. A counter-offer should be distinguished from a mere request for information. If A makes an offer on his standard document and B accepts on a document containing his conflicting standard terms, a contract will be made on B's terms if A acts upon B's communication, example by delivering goods.This situation is known as the â€Å"battle of the forms†. An example to this is the case of (Stevenson v Mc Lean). Wrapping up the case, in the case of Andrew v Ben, it is undoubtedly seen that counter-offer takes place and hence Ben’s i s competent to reject the delivery of Andrew’s pricey potatoes. Question 3 On 24 February before 10 a. m, Andrew heard rumors about the price drop in potatoes market. He immediately send a fax to Ben stating that â€Å"price include delivery†. This shows that offeror had sent a fax to offeree just to provide additional service without extra charges.As Ben already accept the offer on 23 February, and the offer is now ? 10 per bag of potatoes including delivery fee with extra service provide. The contract is still accepted by Ben and just added additional services which show in fax â€Å"price include delivery† as additional contract terms confirm that Andrew will provide ? 10 per bag of potatoes including delivery fee. Even if offeree does not want to accept additional terms from offerer, offeree is still in a previous contract position which is accepting the contract. On 24 February after 10 a. m, Ben had receive a fax from Andrew which stated that â€Å"price include delivery†.Ben accepts the offer of Andrew for ? 10 per bag of potatoes includes delivery, and so Ben posted a letter to confirm his acceptance of Andrew terms. When a letter is posted, the acceptance of the contract is consider accepted. According to Postal Acceptance Rules, once the letter is posted, it is consider as acceptance no matter it reached the offeror or not at that time (Duhaime, n. d. ). There is a similar case of Postal Acceptance Rule: Household Fire Insurance Co. V. Grant. During 30 September 1874, Grant had applied for 100 shares from Household Fire and Carriage Accident Insurance Company Ltd.The company had accepted Grant offer and allotted him 100 shares on 20 October 1874 which using letter posted the confirmation to Grant address. However, the letter does not reach Grant address which means Grant did not receive the acceptance letter from Household Fire Insurance Company. Grant though that his offer for 100 shares has not been approved. On March 18 77, Grant received a letter demanding payment upon the call of 100 shares. The jury also found that the letter of Grant allotment had been posted on 20 October 1874. For the above case Fire Insurance Co. V.Grant, the court concluded that there was a valid contract base on the Postal Acceptance Rule. Because the rule for post is the acceptance is effective even if the letter did not arrive to the parties. The Postal Acceptance Rule is design to prevent anyone try to opt out of the rule, once someone posted acceptance, the contract had came into effect. This rule can apply to Ben and Andrew case, which Ben posted a letter which confirms the acceptance of the contract terms between Andrew and Ben. Which means once the offeree posted the acceptance letter, the contract is consider bound to the offerer.However, over the lunch time, Ben also heard news about the slump price in potatoes market. Ben immediately sends a text message stating that â€Å"decline your offer of pots† to An drew. This means that after Ben knew about the slump price in potatoes, he send text message to Andrew to reject his offer. This text message is come secondly after the letter posted. According to Postal Acceptance Rule the counter acceptance or rejection will only be replace if the parties mention it from their contract, required receive by offeror in order to be treat as acceptance (Corrigan, 1997).There is a similar case of replace acceptance â€Å"Entores V. Miles Far East Corp†. Entores and Miles Far East Corp are communicated trade agreements through Telex machine. Entores was base in London and send telex for purchase of copper from company Miles Far East Corp base in Amsterdam. Entores found out that Miles Far East Corp was not fulfilled the contract and sue the Corp for damages. Entores sue Miles Far East Corp for breach of contract in English law jurisdiction. It could prove that the contract was formed within the jurisdiction.The court concluded that, when offer is made by telex or text message, the offeror must receive the acceptance. If the offeror is receiving the telex, it is consider contract is bound. This same goes to the letter of Ben post, even if the letter is not reached Andrew, the contract of acceptance is considered to be bound. The text message send by Ben afterward is decide by Andrew either to be accept or to be reject the rejection from Ben. The contract of Ben and Andrew is still ? 10 per bag of potatoes includes delivery is already accepted by Ben.According to Ben and Andrew case, when the price of potatoes drop to ? 7 per bag, Andrew immediately counter offer to Ben include delivery, Ben accept Andrew terms before knowing the price drop in Potatoes. After that, Ben realise the price drop of potatoes, he reject the offer and refuse to accept delivery of Andrew pricey potatoes. If offeree refuses to accept the delivery of offerer pricey potatoes, offeree will be breaching the contract terms and fall under offer acceptance l aw case. As the contract of Ben and Andrew is ? 10 per bag of potatoes include delivery which is accepted by Ben.The contract is still active between Ben and Andrew, once the contract is bind between offeror and offeree is not able to revoke. The following rejection by text message from Ben to Andrew is considered as another term of new offer contract which needed Andrew to be accepting. However, Andrew didn’t reply the acceptance of Ben rejection. This means that, Ben have to stick to the first terms of ? 10 per bag of potatoes include delivery. If the case is bring to the court, mostly Andrew will win the case as according to the contract terms, Ben already accept the offer of ? 0 per bag of potatoes include delivery. The offeree (Ben) had accepted the offer at first and the counter rejection of offeree will not be taken in place if the offeror (Andrew) did not want to accept the rejection from offeree. If the offeror (Andrew) did not accept the counter rejection, it consid er as Ben accept the offer and need to purchase ? 10 per bag of potatoes include delivery from Andrew for 100 bags. If Ben is still refuse to accept the Andrew offer, Ben will need to pay compensation to Andrew for breach of contract. Question 4On 21st of February, Andrew is salesman at Wholesome Vegetables Ltd, who offered to sell 100 bags of potatoes at ? 10 to Ben, owner of retail shop. On 23rd of February, Ben replied accepting Andrew’s offer but adding the delivery to his (Ben’s) shop into the price if he did not hear from Andrew. It means the price of potatoes is ? 10 per bag included delivery. On 24th of February, Andrew heard that the price of potatoes is going to fall down dramatically and later Ben is received a fax from Andrew stated that â€Å"price include delivery†. Before 10 a. m, Ben received Andrew’s fax and he accepted the offer of Andrew for ? 0 per bag of potatoes included delivery. After Ben sent a fax to Andrew about his acceptance, both of them already formed a contract of law. The issue appeared in this case when Ben knew about a slump in the price of potatoes over lunch, he sent Andrew a text message â€Å"decline your offer of pots† and he was too late to revoke his acceptance of Andrew’s term because they already made a contract after 10 a. m on 24th of February. The reason Ben wanted to revoke the contract because the price of potatoes in contract that Ben have to pay for Andrew is more expensive than after a slump in the price.Revocation is effective when it is communicated to the offeree before he or she has accepted the offer (Will and Weinstein, 2010) Revocation is one of termination of contract that has similar situation in this case: Byrne and Leon van Tienhoven [1880]. On 1st of October, Leon Van Tienhoven were defendants located in Cardiff, they sent a letter from their office to Byrne ; Co in New York offering to sell the plaintiffs 1,000 boxes of tin plates. On 11th of October, the plaintiffs immediately telegraphed acceptance of offer after they received the letter and it is confirmed in a letter posted on 15th of October.Meanwhile, on 8th of October, the defendants had written a letter to revoke their offer, and it came to plaintiffs on 20th of October. A binding contract was held, because revocation was only influenced by communication, however, the acceptance was telegraphed took effect as soon as it was sent. In this case, it took 9 days from 11th to 20th of October for plaintiffs to received revocation. On 11th of October, the contract had been made already at that time the second letter form defendants reached the plaintiffs.The contract had been existed in this case when the claimants accepted the defendants’ offer at that date. Lindley J, who was giving judgment for plaintiffs, stated that â€Å"the extreme injustice and inconvenience which other conclusion would produce† (Cheshire, Fifoot ; Furmston’sLaw of contract, 1996). This issue happened because the letter of revocation had no communication to the offeree. According to Introduction to the law of contract, the offer could be revoked by offeror without telling offeree, and the information may be conveyed by a reliable third party.In the case of business, a letter from offeror to offereeon a normal working day should be treated as a communication even if unopened (Cheshirem, Fifoot;Furmston’s Law of contract, 1996). Held: In this particular case, Lindle J had no authority in fact given by the plaintiffs to defendants to inform a withdrawal of their offer by posting the letter, the fact is the letter of the 8th of October is be treated as communicated to the plaintiffs on that day or any day before the 20th. ConclusionIn conclusion, Ben has a legal binding contract with Andrew. According to the case of Andrew v Ben, it is noticeably seen that the whole cased is based on the law of contract. A contract may be defined as a legally binding agreement or, in the words of Sir Frederick Pollock:†A promise or set of promises which the law will enforce†. The agreement will create rights and obligations that may be enforced in the courts. It is classified as a contract is deed and it is known as a bilateral contract.This imply where a promise of one party is exchanged for a promise by the other. The exchange of promises is enough to render them both enforceable. Thus in a contract for the sale of goods, the buyer promises to pay the price and the seller promises to deliver the goods. The elements involved in the contract are agreement, consideration, intention to create legal relation and consent. A contract which possesses all these requirements is said to be valid. The absence of an essential element will render the contract void, voidable or unenforceable.The terms of the contract is Ben accepting 100 bags of potatoes for ? 10 per bag of potatoes including delivery fee from Andrew. If let say offerer (Andrew) accept the rejection of offeree (Ben) text message, the acceptance contract will be terminated. However, if offerer (Andrew) still deciding to supply the stock of potatoes to offeree (Ben), Ben would have to purchase the 100 bags of potatoes with ? 10 per bag of potatoes including delivery fee. On the other hand, if offeree (Ben) refuses to accept the 100 bags of potatoes with ? 0 per bag including delivery, offerer (Andrew) can sue offeree (Ben) for breach of contract. The probability of claimant (Andrew) could win the case is high as defendant (Ben) has proven accept the acceptance contract terms. In our opinion, this case study is related to offer and acceptance rules. The oferee (Ben) should accept the 100 bags of potatoes for ? 10 per bag of potatoes including delivery fee as offerer (Andrew) has an evidence of acceptance contract binding between Ben and Andrew.

Opportunities Offered By The Youth Zone For The Youths

The concept of volunteering in general terms refers to the act of rendering a service or services by free will or choice for the benefit of the community at large by an individual, a group, or an institution without expecting monetary gain or return in appreciation of being a volunteer (social impact of volunteerism) The effectiveness of volunteering in the community cannot be over emphasized. It helps to build a strong and cohesive community. It promotes social inclusion as well as integration and happiness. The benefits of volunteering include internal honour such as social acceptance and recognition, self-esteem, training and career enhancement, as well as health benefits. (Social impact of volunteerism)†¦show more content†¦The centre has over 20 activities available every night. (The way youth zone) The way youth zone provides different activities for the young people .this include sports, fitness, media, wellbeing, self-improvement, arts, dance, music, and media. The way youth zone is a hub in the centre of the city which provides a very conducive and safe environment for the young people to enjoy themselves, make new friends, relax, and raise their aspirations, build their confidence and help them at working towards achieving their dreams in life. This helps to create and build a safer, happier and healthier generation. The facility boasts of the best equipment, this includes a high spec music room, a modern climbing wall, a cafà ©, a beautiful dance studio, a well- equipped gym, a 3G pitch, a cooking area, a multi-use 4 court sports hall, and much more. (Wolverhampton Information Network) There are three major zone classifications at the way youth zone: the senior, the junior and the inclusive. Senior zone: This is for the 13-19 age groups. With over 20 activities for every session, at a cost of 50p per session, the youth will have access to a mix of sporting activities, chill out activities, creative and performing arts and enterprise. Themed party nights, discos, tournaments are usually provided too. The senior club is opened from 4 pm to 10 pm on Mondays, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday and 4 pm to 9 pm on Sunday. Also available is aShow MoreRelatedDisarmament, Demobilization, And Reintegration Of Rebel Groups1729 Words   |  7 PagesJordan, such as Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, have a multitude of internal conflicts concerning rebel groups (Makhoul). Jordan is, therefore, significantly impacted by proxy wars and spillover violence from these groups, and is often used as a buffer zone for groups between Israel and its regional adversaries. To address this issue, Jordan has significantly bolstered its border security, launching a new recruitment drive to increase its mi litary size and improve coordination with Saudi Arabia (Spath)Read MorePersonal Statement : The Freshman Mentoring Program919 Words   |  4 Pagesengage myself in the various groups and clubs offered at my high school. 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